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Capitalism

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-	An economic system in which investment in and ownership of the [[means of production]], distribution, and exchange of wealth are usually owned by individuals and corporations instead of cooperative or state owned wealth. Capitalism is based on an [[ideological \| ideology]] of free trade, open markets, and individuality. The [[exchange-value]] of goods matters more than the goods [[use-value]].	+	Capitalism is an economic system in which investment in and ownership of the [[means of production]], distribution, and exchange of wealth are usually owned by individuals and corporations instead of cooperative or state owned wealth. In a capitalist nation, wealth is not shared but is controlled privately. Contrary to economic and political system Marx proposes, capitalism does not condemn private property. Capitalism is based on an [[ideological \| ideology]] of free trade, open markets, and individuality. The [[exchange-value]] of goods matters more than the goods' [[use-value]].

"The Culture Industry: Englightenment as Mass Deception"

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-	Theodor [[Adorno]] and Max [[Horkheimer]]'s very pessimistic essay examining the state of modern [[culture]]. The authors believe that there are not any true, individual voices present in our culture, nor is there room for them. They believe that `Culture has always played its part in taming revolutionary and barbaric instincts` (152). There is little room for hope in their conception of [[culture]].	+	"The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception" is Theodor [[Adorno]] and Max [[Horkheimer]]'s essay examining the state of contemporary mass [[culture]]. Horkheimer and Adorno observe a shift in mass culture and note that instead of being divided into low, middle, and high, there now exists a single marketplace for ideas in which the most popular works succeed. This concept, referred to as “the culture industry”, indicates that culture now mimics the capitalist political system and serves merely to guarantee submission of the masses to the unified market. The culture industry deprives people of their individual subjectivity and in turn treats them as objects of mass culture.

-	Horkeimer and Adorno also state that, `there is nothing left for the consumer to classify. Producer shae done it for him... Not only are the hit songs, stars and soap operas cyclically recurrent and rigidly invariable types, but the specific content of the entertaintment itself is derived from them and only appears to change` (125) Their statement implies that these hit songs, the popular stars and shows of our times are all a part of this hegemonic 'culture' or ideology which consumes us. Therefore, people are not so much individuals, but rather, we are perpetuated by the ideologies inlaid through our societies.	+	Horkheimer and Adorno believe that `Culture has always played its part in taming revolutionary and barbaric instincts` (152). There is little room for hope in their conception of [[culture]]. They also state that, `there is nothing left for the consumer to classify. Producer have done it for him... Not only are the hit songs, stars and soap operas cyclically recurrent and rigidly invariable types, but the specific content of the entertaintment itself is derived from them and only appears to change` (125) Their statement implies that these hit songs, the popular stars and shows of our times are all a part of this hegemonic 'culture' or ideology which consumes us. Therefore, people are not so much individuals, but rather, we are perpetuated by the ideologies inlaid through our societies.

-	The essay `The Culture Industry` applies the ideas that because are culture is so heavily inundated with hegmonic ideologies which are do not so much only permeate the structures of how society is run, but rather they believe them to be the basis of how different industries function. In industries such as the film industry, such variables in the different motion pictures, programs, shows, etc that are produced are interchangeable in the ways that the audience views them because they are in a sense, trained by culture to 'read' things in a certain way.	+	The essay `The Culture Industry` applies the idea that because our culture is so heavily inundated with hegemonic ideologies, which do not only permeate the structures of how society is run, but also they believe them to be the basis of how different industries function. In industries such as the film industry, such variables in the different motion pictures, programs, shows, etc that are produced are interchangeable in the ways that the audience views them because they are in a sense, trained by culture to 'read' things in a certain way.

	Again, the approach is deeply Marxist. The culture industry, and the alienation and homogenization it engenders, is an achievement of mass production. It is the technology itself that allows for the commodification of culture and its associated social control. Of course, the authors diverge from Marx in the obvious sense of hopelessness. Revolution is no longer inevitable, indeed it seems simply impossible according to the image they paint.		Again, the approach is deeply Marxist. The culture industry, and the alienation and homogenization it engenders, is an achievement of mass production. It is the technology itself that allows for the commodification of culture and its associated social control. Of course, the authors diverge from Marx in the obvious sense of hopelessness. Revolution is no longer inevitable, indeed it seems simply impossible according to the image they paint.

Adorno

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-	Theodore Adorno (1903-69) was a member of the [[Frankfurt School]] and a co-author of [[`The Culture Industry: Englightenment as Mass Deception`]] with Max [[Horkheimer]]. At the University of Frankfurt he studied philosophy and music in particular, as well as sociology and psychology.	+	Theodore Adorno (1903-69) was a member of the [[Frankfurt School]] and a co-author of [["The Culture Industry: Englightenment as Mass Deception"]] with Max [[Horkheimer]]. At the University of Frankfurt he studied philosophy and music in particular, as well as sociology and psychology.

	Adorno consciously attempted to write in a style that would be difficult to consume or understand as a testament to his esteem for difficult works of art and philosophy as well as the value of understanding achieved through struggle.		Adorno consciously attempted to write in a style that would be difficult to consume or understand as a testament to his esteem for difficult works of art and philosophy as well as the value of understanding achieved through struggle.

Low art

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-	[[Low Art]] refers to cultural forms that are considered to be easily accessible to the average person. Examples of [[Low Art\|low art]] include pop music, folk art and [[popular culture]], in general. Much of what is termed [[Low Art\|low art]] is sometimes not regarded as art at all because it does not fit into the 'high art' model of what art is supposed to be. [[Low Art]] is considered to be in a binary relationship with [[high art \| High Art]].	+	[[Low art]] refers to cultural forms that are considered to be easily accessible to the average person. Examples of low art include pop music, folk art and [[popular culture]], in general. Much of what is deemed low art is sometimes not regarded as art at all because it does not fit into the 'high art' model of what art is supposed to be. Low art is considered to be in a binary relationship with [[high art \| High Art]].

High art

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-	[[High art \| high art]] are forms of culture that are considered `important.` Viewed as elite cultural forms opera, classical music and symphonic orchestra as three examples of `high art.` These forms of culture are not marketed to the masses and are seen as elite because you have to be `educated` and `sophisticated` enough to understand them. High art is in a binary relationship with `[[low art \| Low Art]]` or art for the masses.	+	[[High art]] refers to forms of culture that are considered culturally significant. Viewed as elite cultural forms, opera, classical music, and symphonic orchestra are three examples of high art. These forms of culture are not marketed to the masses and are seen as elite because one have to be educated and sophisticated enough to understand them. High art is in a binary relationship with [[low art \| Low Art]], or art for the masses.

Low art

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-	[[low art\| Low Art]] refers to cultural forms that are considered to be easily accessible to the average person. Examples of [[low art]] include pop music, folk art and [[popular culture]], in general. Much of what is termed `[[low art]]` is sometimes not regarded as art at all because it does not fit into the 'high art' model of what art is supposed to be. '[[low art \| Low Art]]' is considered to be in a binary relationship with [[high art \| High Art]].	+	[[Low Art]] refers to cultural forms that are considered to be easily accessible to the average person. Examples of [[Low Art\|low art]] include pop music, folk art and [[popular culture]], in general. Much of what is termed [[Low Art\|low art]] is sometimes not regarded as art at all because it does not fit into the 'high art' model of what art is supposed to be. [[Low Art]] is considered to be in a binary relationship with [[high art \| High Art]].

Romance novel

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New page

In essence, romance novels are heterosexual love stories written for the most part by women for women. They are relatively short, easy reads. As [[Janice Radway]] discusses in ''[[Reading the Romance]]'', there are certain characteristics one can expect to find in every romance novel. According to her study, the most important feature of any romance is the happy ending, followed by "a slowly but consistently developing love between hero and heroine," "some detail about the heroine and hero after they've gotten together," and "lots of love scenes with some explicit sexual description." Particular historical settings and characters are appreciated as well (67). Arguably, the romance novel has morphed over time, though it is unclear to what extent patriarchy is questioned in modern romance novels (as it rarely was in the novels Radway refers to).

Stuart Hall

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-	Cultural theorist Stuart Hall was born in Kingston Jamaica in 1932 and moved to Bristol, England in 1951 with his mother to study at Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar. During the 1950s, Hall joined forces with Raphael Samuel, Charles Taylor, and Gabriel Pearson to create the New Left Review, a [[socialism \| socialist]] journal. After co-writing The Popular Arts in 1964, Hall was invited to become a member of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at Birmingham University (he went on to become the director in later years). During his time at the Univeristy, Hall published several influential books including ''Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse'', ''Situating Marx: Evaluations and Departures'', and ''Reading of Marxâ€™s 1857 Introduction to the Grundrisse''. Hall was appointed as a Professor of Sociology in 1979 at the Open University in the United Kingdom where he remained until his retirement in 1997.	+	Cultural theorist Stuart Hall was born in Kingston Jamaica in 1932 and moved to Bristol, England in 1951 with his mother to study at Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar. During the 1950s, Hall joined forces with Raphael Samuel, Charles Taylor, and Gabriel Pearson to create the New Left Review, a [[socialism \| socialist]] journal. After co-writing The Popular Arts in 1964, Hall was invited to become a member of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at Birmingham University (he went on to become the director in later years). During his time at the Univeristy, Hall published several influential books including ''Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse'', ''Situating Marx: Evaluations and Departures'', and ''Reading of Marx's 1857 Introduction to the Grundrisse''. Hall was appointed as a Professor of Sociology in 1979 at the Open University in the United Kingdom where he remained until his retirement in 1997.

-	Various key issues of cultural studies are addressed in Hallâ€™s work, specifically the issue of [[hegemonic \| hegemony]]. Like [[Gramsci]], Hall argues that subjects negotiate meaning as opposed to passively accepting it. According to Hall, factors such as cultural background affect the way audiences interpret meaning. His theories of [[encoding and decoding]] further illustrate this point.	+	Various key issues of cultural studies are addressed in Hall's work, specifically the issue of [[hegemonic \| hegemony]]. Like [[Gramsci]], Hall argues that subjects negotiate meaning as opposed to passively accepting it. According to Hall, factors such as cultural background affect the way audiences interpret meaning. His theories of [[encoding and decoding]] further illustrate this point.

	Hall wrote [[`Gramsci's Relevance for the Study of Race and Ethnicity`]]		Hall wrote [[`Gramsci's Relevance for the Study of Race and Ethnicity`]]

Low art

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-	Cultural forms that are considered to be comprehenable to the adverage person are often labeled as `low art.` Examples of this are pop music, folk art and [[popular culture]], in general. Much of what is termed `[[low art\| Low Art]]` has had a hard time getting to be considered art at all because it does not fit into the `high art` model of what art is supposed to be. `[[low art \| Low Art]]` is considered to be in a binary relationship with [[high art \| High Art]].	+	[[low art\| Low Art]] refers to cultural forms that are considered to be easily accessible to the average person. Examples of [[low art]] include pop music, folk art and [[popular culture]], in general. Much of what is termed `[[low art]]` is sometimes not regarded as art at all because it does not fit into the 'high art' model of what art is supposed to be. '[[low art \| Low Art]]' is considered to be in a binary relationship with [[high art \| High Art]].

Teleology

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-	The term `teleology` is broadly defined as the study of design or purpose in natural phenomena; the use of ultimate purpose or design as a means of explaining phenomena. Belief in or the perception of purposeful development towards an end, as in nature or history. The â€œendâ€ result, where the end is what causes everything. When applied to [[Marxism]], teleology explains the revolutionary process - everyone will suffer at first, but, ultimately, salvation will be found. Example: In Christianity, believers are expected to follow the word of God and do His work until the 2nd coming of Christ (or Heaven, depending), after which they will be saved forever. ([[Marx]], [[Manifesto of the Communist Party \| Communist Manifesto]], [[Commodities]])	+	The term `teleology` is broadly defined as the study of design or purpose in natural phenomena; the use of ultimate purpose or design as a means of explaining phenomena. Belief in or the perception of purposeful development towards an end, as in nature or history. The end result, where the end is what causes everything. When applied to [[Marxism]], teleology explains the revolutionary process - everyone will suffer at first, but, ultimately, salvation will be found. Example: In Christianity, believers are expected to follow the word of God and do His work until the 2nd coming of Christ (or Heaven, depending), after which they will be saved forever. ([[Marx]], [[Manifesto of the Communist Party \| Communist Manifesto]], [[Commodities]])

Dick Hebdige

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-	Author of ''[[Subculture: The Meaning of Style]]'', an important work that examines the relationship between dominant culture and subcultures. Hebdige focuses on the [[sub-cultures]] that emerged in post-World War II Britain including teddy boys, [[the mods]], skinheads, and [[Punks]]. He defines subculture as resistance to ruling ideology through [[style]]. `His study on the connection between style and fashion and culture is referenced in many other academic works today even outside of cultural studies.	+	Author of ''[[Subculture: The Meaning of Style]]'', an important work that examines the relationship between dominant culture and subcultures. Hebdige focuses on the [[sub-cultures]] that emerged in post-World War II Britain including teddy boys, [[the mods]], skinheads, and [[punks]]. He defines subculture as resistance to ruling ideology through [[style]]. `His study on the connection between style and fashion and culture is referenced in many other academic works today even outside of cultural studies.

-	Hebidge stated â€œ[[postmodernity]] is is [[modernist \| modernity]] without the hopes and dreams which made modernity bearable`. He believed that those in society that dominated matierally were bound to dominate intellectually and morally. In other words, the values of the mightiest will be taken as â€œnormalâ€ and â€œjustâ€ and will in turn be imposed on the rest of society:	+	Hebidge stated [[postmodernity]] is [[modernist \| modernity]] without the hopes and dreams which made modernity bearable`. He believed that those in society that dominated matierally were bound to dominate intellectually and morally. In other words, the values of the mightiest will be taken as normal and just and will in turn be imposed on the rest of society:
	[W]e must first consider how power is distributed in our society. . . Some groups have more say, more opportunity to make the rules, to organize meaning, while others are less favorably placed. . . These 'maps of meaning' are charged with a potentially explosive significance because they are traced and re-traced along lines laid down by the dominant discourses about reality, the dominant ideologies. They thus tend to represent, in however obscure and contradictory a fashion, the interests of the dominant groups in society (14).		[W]e must first consider how power is distributed in our society. . . Some groups have more say, more opportunity to make the rules, to organize meaning, while others are less favorably placed. . . These 'maps of meaning' are charged with a potentially explosive significance because they are traced and re-traced along lines laid down by the dominant discourses about reality, the dominant ideologies. They thus tend to represent, in however obscure and contradictory a fashion, the interests of the dominant groups in society (14).

Subculture

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	[[Style]] can constitute a symbolic dissent of the [[hegemonic]] order of society, a subconscious expression of marginalization within the social common sense (2). Objects, practices and elements of style can be read critically just as canonical cultural works and practices can be deconstructed to reveal the power structures that underlie and inform them (8).		[[Style]] can constitute a symbolic dissent of the [[hegemonic]] order of society, a subconscious expression of marginalization within the social common sense (2). Objects, practices and elements of style can be read critically just as canonical cultural works and practices can be deconstructed to reveal the power structures that underlie and inform them (8).
-	Early on in his introduction to [[culture]], Hebdige mentions a conflict internal to cultural studies between classical and anthropological notions of culture as either a â€œstandard of excellenceâ€ or a â€œwhole way of lifeâ€ (6-7). Despite semioticsâ€™ promise of reconciliation, the resulting disagreement within cultural studies over which conception produces the more fruitful line of critical inquiry remains unresolved in Subculture (7,10,139).	+	Early on in his introduction to [[culture]], Hebdige mentions a conflict internal to cultural studies between classical and anthropological notions of culture as either a standard of excellence or a whole way of life (6-7). Despite semiotics promise of reconciliation, the resulting disagreement within cultural studies over which conception produces the more fruitful line of critical inquiry remains unresolved in Subculture (7,10,139).

	Hebdige does however explore the process by which cultural standards of excellence are preserved in the face of the challenges of counter-, sub- and mulit-cultural ways of life. He discusses one of the media's roles of cultural intervention, in both providing would-be subcultures with material symbols and their interpretations, as well as a means by which society represents, interprets and assimilates those subcultures (85).		Hebdige does however explore the process by which cultural standards of excellence are preserved in the face of the challenges of counter-, sub- and mulit-cultural ways of life. He discusses one of the media's roles of cultural intervention, in both providing would-be subcultures with material symbols and their interpretations, as well as a means by which society represents, interprets and assimilates those subcultures (85).

-	`The mass media are more and more responsible (a) for providing the basis on which groups and classes construct an image of the lives, meanings, practices and values of other groups and classes; (b) for providing the images, representations and ideas around which the social totality [â€¦] can be coherently grasped (Hall, 85).`	+	`The mass media are more and more responsible (a) for providing the basis on which groups and classes construct an image of the lives, meanings, practices and values of other groups and classes; (b) for providing the images, representations and ideas around which the social totality can be coherently grasped (Hall, 85).`

-	The media not only play a crucial role in the formation of subcultures, but also their dissolution (92-99,130). Subcultures are naturalized and assimilated by two overlapping methods, the commodification of subcultural forms, and the ideological â€œredefinition of deviant behavior by dominant groupsâ€ (94).	+	The media not only play a crucial role in the formation of subcultures, but also their dissolution (92-99,130). Subcultures are naturalized and assimilated by two overlapping methods, the commodification of subcultural forms, and the ideological redefinition of deviant behavior by dominant groups (94).

-	`Subcultural deviance is simultaneously rendered â€˜explicableâ€™ and meaningless in the classrooms, courts and media at the same time as the â€˜secretâ€™ objects of subcultural style are put on display in every [â€¦] shop and chain-store boutique. Stripped of its unwholesome connotations, the style becomes fit for public consumption (130)`.	+	`Subcultural deviance is simultaneously rendered explicable and meaningless in the classrooms, courts and media at the same time as the secret objects of subcultural style are put on display in every shop and chain-store boutique. Stripped of its unwholesome connotations, the style becomes fit for public consumption (130)`.

	This process of hegemonic recuperation of control over cultural meaning is inevitable as subcultures communicate through [[appropriation \| appropriated]] commodities. It also reveals how traces of political and historical relations, like race relations, can be read of the surfaces of these subcultures, reflecting the way in which larger sociopolitical conflicts are diffused in the culture (65).		This process of hegemonic recuperation of control over cultural meaning is inevitable as subcultures communicate through [[appropriation \| appropriated]] commodities. It also reveals how traces of political and historical relations, like race relations, can be read of the surfaces of these subcultures, reflecting the way in which larger sociopolitical conflicts are diffused in the culture (65).

Hegemonic

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	This concept of hegemony was complicated with the writings and later interpretations of [[Gramsci]], and became a central subject of [[Marxism \| Marxist Cultural Theory]]. Hegemony in this sense must be understood as a complex relationship between groups of dominant and subdominant populations established and identified not only by their economic status, but also race, gender, ethnicity, religion and other subjective elements. Hegemony must be negotiated for by the dominant class and must be accepted, either through coercion or consensus, by all those under its sway.		This concept of hegemony was complicated with the writings and later interpretations of [[Gramsci]], and became a central subject of [[Marxism \| Marxist Cultural Theory]]. Hegemony in this sense must be understood as a complex relationship between groups of dominant and subdominant populations established and identified not only by their economic status, but also race, gender, ethnicity, religion and other subjective elements. Hegemony must be negotiated for by the dominant class and must be accepted, either through coercion or consensus, by all those under its sway.

-	Hegemony uses the ideological bases of the society to normalize not only the official institutions, economies, and government artifices, but also the cultural, artistic and traditional practices of every day life. The idea of hegemony as developed to exist in relation to but beyond ideology. It is the â€œsaturation of the whole process of livingâ€ (Williams 110). It is a crucial element in the daily practices, expectations, and perceptions both of ourselves as subjective beings and of our society and world.	+	Hegemony uses the ideological bases of the society to normalize not only the official institutions, economies, and government artifices, but also the cultural, artistic and traditional practices of every day life. The idea of hegemony as developed to exist in relation to but beyond ideology. It is the "saturation of the whole process of living" (Williams 110). It is a crucial element in the daily practices, expectations, and perceptions both of ourselves as subjective beings and of our society and world.

-	In such, the relationship between the hegemonic and the subordinate is significantly complicated. It no longer suffices to explain the relationship as one in which the dominant ideology creates a [[false consciousness]] through manipulation and thus maintains hegemony and control over the means of production. As Raymond Williams writes, â€œa lived hegemony is always a processâ€ (Williams, 112). Hegemony is constantly resisted and reshaped. Hegemony is in this view, no longer the totalizing and exclusive force that is written about by Adorno and Horkheimer. Theorists like Williams, Hall, and Hebdige begin to address the [[counter-hegemonies]], [[counterculture \| counter-cultures]], and [[subculture \| sub-cultures]] and consider how they actively participate in the recreation of hegemony.	+	In such, the relationship between the hegemonic and the subordinate is significantly complicated. It no longer suffices to explain the relationship as one in which the dominant ideology creates a [[false consciousness]] through manipulation and thus maintains hegemony and control over the means of production. As Raymond Williams writes, "a lived hegemony is always a process" (Williams, 112). Hegemony is constantly resisted and reshaped. Hegemony is in this view, no longer the totalizing and exclusive force that is written about by Adorno and Horkheimer. Theorists like Williams, Hall, and Hebdige begin to address the [[counter-hegemonies]], [[counterculture \| counter-cultures]], and [[subculture \| sub-cultures]] and consider how they actively participate in the recreation of hegemony.

	Cultural movements and artifacts, according to these theorists, are consistently rising from marginalized groups to challenge the hegemonic norms. These challenges may meet a variety of fates: they may be crushed outright, they may be ignored and continue to exist only on the periphery of the cultural panorama, or they may be incorporated, re-appropriated, and re-assimilated to varying degrees back into the dominant culture.		Cultural movements and artifacts, according to these theorists, are consistently rising from marginalized groups to challenge the hegemonic norms. These challenges may meet a variety of fates: they may be crushed outright, they may be ignored and continue to exist only on the periphery of the cultural panorama, or they may be incorporated, re-appropriated, and re-assimilated to varying degrees back into the dominant culture.

	The hegemonic, is then, not a static and totalizing force, but the critical site of social and cultural struggle; the discourse through which the practices, ideas, tradtions, and norms that shape our lives are formed.		The hegemonic, is then, not a static and totalizing force, but the critical site of social and cultural struggle; the discourse through which the practices, ideas, tradtions, and norms that shape our lives are formed.

Commodity fetish

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-	[[Marx]] and [[Frederick Engels \| Engel]]'s discussion of [[commodity]] fetishism remains relevant in today's capitalistic culture. `[[Commodity Fetishism]]` refers to the idea that a commodity's worth is entirely based on its economic, or trade value, not based upon its [[use-value]]. Such fetishism occurs when a commodity's [[exchange-value]] has so overcome its use-value that the use-value has been forgotten, therefore making a [[commodity]] stripped of technical [[use-value]] and only valuable in its "commodity-ness."	+	[[Marx]] and [[Frederick Engels \| Engel]]'s discussion of [[commodity]] fetishism remains relevant in today's capitalistic culture. `[[Commodity fetishism]]` refers to the idea that a commodity's worth is entirely based on its economic, or trade value, not based upon its [[use-value]]. Such fetishism occurs when a commodity's [[exchange-value]] has so overcome its use-value that the use-value has been forgotten, therefore making a [[commodity]] stripped of technical [[use-value]] and only valuable in its "commodity-ness."

	Example: Beanie Baby collectors keep their toys in plastic cases, not playing with them, because if their tags are damaged they lose their value. The commodity's original value was in the pleasure attained from playing with the soft object, but collector''s instead valued them for being a somewhat rare commodity, replacing its use-value for its exchange-value. (Marx, [[Commodities]])		Example: Beanie Baby collectors keep their toys in plastic cases, not playing with them, because if their tags are damaged they lose their value. The commodity's original value was in the pleasure attained from playing with the soft object, but collector''s instead valued them for being a somewhat rare commodity, replacing its use-value for its exchange-value. (Marx, [[Commodities]])

Hegemony

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	[[Gramsci]] defines hegemony as a moment where the interests of a dominant group overlap with the interests of other groups and the life of the state as a whole. There's three imporant points to be made about hegemony:		[[Gramsci]] defines hegemony as a moment where the interests of a dominant group overlap with the interests of other groups and the life of the state as a whole. There's three imporant points to be made about hegemony:

-	1. hegemony is very particular, historically specific, and is a temporary moment in the life of a society. Hegemony has to be actively constructed and positively maintained.	+	1. Hegemony is very particular, historically specific, and is a temporary moment in the life of a society. Hegemony has to be actively constructed and positively maintained.

	2. Hegemony is multi dimensional and takes place in many arenas, and cannnot be constructed through one form of struggle alone (hegemony is not solely economic).		2. Hegemony is multi dimensional and takes place in many arenas, and cannnot be constructed through one form of struggle alone (hegemony is not solely economic).

	3. Hegemony is no longer lead by a ruling class but instead a historical bloc of groups allied under a particular leadership group.		3. Hegemony is no longer lead by a ruling class but instead a historical bloc of groups allied under a particular leadership group.

Commodity fetish

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-	[[Marx]] and [[Frederick Engels \| Engel]]'s discussion of [[commodity]] fetishism remains relevant in today's capitalistic culture. `[[Commodity Fetishism]]` refers to the idea that a commodityâ€™s worth is entirely based on its economic, or trade value, not based upon its [[use-value]]. Such fetishism occurs when a commodity's [[exchange-value]] has so overcome its use-value that the use-value has been forgotten, therefore making a [[commodity]] stripped of technical [[use-value]] and only valuable in its â€œcommodity-ness.â€	+	[[Marx]] and [[Frederick Engels \| Engel]]'s discussion of [[commodity]] fetishism remains relevant in today's capitalistic culture. `[[Commodity Fetishism]]` refers to the idea that a commodity's worth is entirely based on its economic, or trade value, not based upon its [[use-value]]. Such fetishism occurs when a commodity's [[exchange-value]] has so overcome its use-value that the use-value has been forgotten, therefore making a [[commodity]] stripped of technical [[use-value]] and only valuable in its "commodity-ness."

-	Example: Beanie Baby collectors keep their toys in plastic cases, not playing with them, because if their tags are damaged they lose their value. The commodityâ€™s original value was in the pleasure attained from playing with the soft object, but collectorâ€™s instead valued them for being a somewhat rare commodity, replacing its use-value for its exchange-value. (Marx, [[Commodities]])	+	Example: Beanie Baby collectors keep their toys in plastic cases, not playing with them, because if their tags are damaged they lose their value. The commodity's original value was in the pleasure attained from playing with the soft object, but collector''s instead valued them for being a somewhat rare commodity, replacing its use-value for its exchange-value. (Marx, [[Commodities]])

Overdetermination

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-	Overdetermination is the idea that an effect is determined by multiple causes. Each part of society and its ideologies are constantly evolving based on one another's mutually dependent growth. In this way, ideologies have their own history and contribute to society's structure. In addition, any one of these causes could alone give rise to the effect. [[Althusser]] introduces this concept in his 1962 essay, [[â€œContradiction and Overdeterminationâ€]], as a criticism to economic determinism and to the notion of Marxism as a simple inversion of [[Hegel]]â€™s ideas. He specifically explains that capitalists must ensure the reproduction of their class structure, the oppression of the working class, by ensuring the class's physical survival (such as giving adequate pay) and the class' subordinance via ingrained societal ideologies subtly infused with classism.	+	Overdetermination is the idea that an effect is determined by multiple causes. Each part of society and its ideologies are constantly evolving based on one another's mutually dependent growth. In this way, ideologies have their own history and contribute to society's structure. In addition, any one of these causes could alone give rise to the effect. [[Althusser]] introduces this concept in his 1962 essay, [["Contradiction and Overdetermination"]], as a criticism to economic determinism and to the notion of Marxism as a simple inversion of [[Hegel]]'s ideas. He specifically explains that capitalists must ensure the reproduction of their class structure, the oppression of the working class, by ensuring the class's physical survival (such as giving adequate pay) and the class' subordinance via ingrained societal ideologies subtly infused with classism.

Jean Genet

2009-11-17T19:18:28Z

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-	â€œFor Genet, theatrical procedure is demoniacal. Appearance, which is constantly on the point of passing itself off as reality, must constantly reveal its profound unreality. Everything must be so false that it sets our teeth on edge. It is the element of fake, of sham, of artificiality, that attracts Genet in the theatre. In these patient fakings, appearance is revealed at the same time as pure nothingness and as cause of itself ... Evil is a Nothingness which arises upon the ruins of the Good. Thus, Genet's Beauty will be glaringly false: it is a fictive creation and a false destruction.â€ â€“ Jean Paul Sartre on Jean Genet (online available: http://www.3to6.com/final_theatre/legend-genet.htm)	+	"For Genet, theatrical procedure is demoniacal. Appearance, which is constantly on the point of passing itself off as reality, must constantly reveal its profound unreality. Everything must be so false that it sets our teeth on edge. It is the element of fake, of sham, of artificiality, that attracts Genet in the theatre. In these patient fakings, appearance is revealed at the same time as pure nothingness and as cause of itself ... Evil is a Nothingness which arises upon the ruins of the Good. Thus, Genet's Beauty will be glaringly false: it is a fictive creation and a false destruction." Jean Paul Sartre on Jean Genet (online available: http://www.3to6.com/final_theatre/legend-genet.htm)

-	The life and work of French novelist, playwright, and poet Jean Genet is called upon by Dick [[Hebdige]] in his book, [[Subculture: The Meaning of Style]], as a â€œmetaphor and modelâ€ for the use of style in subculture to refute the dominant ideology. Writing the signs in a way that inscribed his Otherness, his Exile by the state, â€œhe more than most has explored in both his life and his art the subversive implications of artâ€¦Genet is a subculture unto himselfâ€ (137).	+	The life and work of French novelist, playwright, and poet Jean Genet is called upon by [[Dick Hebdige]] in his book, [[Subculture: The Meaning of Style]], as a "metaphor and model" for the use of style in subculture to refute the dominant ideology. Writing the signs in a way that inscribed his Otherness, his Exile by the state, "he more than most has explored in both his life and his art the subversive implications of art--Genet is a subculture unto himself" (137).

-	Born in Paris on December 10, 1910 to a Parisian prostitute, Genet was abandoned by both of his parents and spent his childhood as a burden of the state in homes for juvenile delinquents. When he was only ten, he was accused of stealing â€“ although the charges were false he decided to assume the role into which society had hailed him and become a thief. He writes, â€œI decisively repudiated a world that had repudiated me.â€	+	Born in Paris on December 10, 1910 to a Parisian prostitute, Genet was abandoned by both of his parents and spent his childhood as a burden of the state in homes for juvenile delinquents. When he was only ten, he was accused of stealing; although the charges were false he decided to assume the role into which society had hailed him and become a thief. He writes, "I decisively repudiated a world that had repudiated me."

-	At age 23, a lice-ridden Genet was begging a living in Spain, sleeping with a one-armed pimp. This experience became the inspiration for â€œThe Thiefâ€™s Journal,â€ the work that Hebdige references in the beginning of his own book. Genet spent the 1930â€™s traveling first with the French Legion in Syria and then through Europe. Arriving in Nazi Germany he was dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities to break the moral code: â€œI had a feeling of being in a camp of organized bandits. This is a nation of thieves, I felt. If I steal here, I accomplish no special act that could help me to realize myself. I merely obey the habitual order of things. I do not destroy it.â€ His words are especially revealing in understanding the motivation behind Genetâ€™s lifestyle; he appears to define through â€œcriminalâ€ acts in the popular eye, through publicly defying the regulated legal and moral system. According to Hebdige, Genet was also a homosexual; making a spectacle of his sexuality was certainly a flagrant attack on the status quo.	+	At age 23, a lice-ridden Genet was begging a living in Spain, sleeping with a one-armed pimp. This experience became the inspiration for "The Thief's Journal," the work that Hebdige references in the beginning of his own book. Genet spent the 1930's traveling first with the French Legion in Syria and then through Europe. Arriving in Nazi Germany he was dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities to break the moral code: "I had a feeling of being in a camp of organized bandits. This is a nation of thieves, I felt. If I steal here, I accomplish no special act that could help me to realize myself. I merely obey the habitual order of things. I do not destroy it." His words are especially revealing in understanding the motivation behind Genet's lifestyle; he appears to define through "criminal" acts in the popular eye, through publicly defying the regulated legal and moral system. According to Hebdige, Genet was also a homosexual; making a spectacle of his sexuality was certainly a flagrant attack on the status quo.

-	Imprisoned for theft, Genet wrote his first manuscript at the age of 32 in a prison cell. Although the document was discovered by the prison guards and destroyed, Genet rewrote it from memory and managed to get it smuggled out of his cell. It found its way to Jean Paul Sartre and Cocteau who garnered the support of other French intellectuals to lobby the government in Genetâ€™s behalf.	+	Imprisoned for theft, Genet wrote his first manuscript at the age of 32 in a prison cell. Although the document was discovered by the prison guards and destroyed, Genet rewrote it from memory and managed to get it smuggled out of his cell. It found its way to Jean Paul Sartre and Cocteau who garnered the support of other French intellectuals to lobby the government in Genet's behalf.

-	After writing five novels largely informed by his prison experiences before retreating for a time into silence, Genet became a playwright in the late 1940â€™s. Not surprisingly, he abandons traditional plot lines and story formats for heavily psychological, ritual stories of transformation, illusion, and interchangeable identities. His plays are filled with prostitutes, homosexuals, thiefs, and outcasts who, haunted by their own distorted reflections at every turn, â€œare trapped in self-destructive circles.â€ Deathwatch is the story of three inmates who compete for power in the cell while a fourth watches from the side. In The Maids, Genet depicts two female maids in a role play, taking turns being the â€œMadameâ€ and the maid. In examining the power structure at play, he illustrates the contempt the maids hold for the authority that oppresses them as well as their own complicity in the system. Set in a luxurious brothel, The Balcony juxtaposes the illicit fantasies of men and a revolution rocking the country outside of the brothel walls. In The Blacks, a group of colored actors perform a re-enactment of the murder of a white of which they have been accused in front of a jury of black men with white masks. The Screens, the last of Genetâ€™s plays to be produced while he was still living, is his statement on the Algerian Revolution. â€œThese plays are grotesqueâ€¦they exude a strange ritualistic, incantatory quality that successfully transforms life into a series of ceremonies and rituals that bring stability to an otherwise unbearable existence.â€	+	After writing five novels largely informed by his prison experiences before retreating for a time into silence, Genet became a playwright in the late 1940's. Not surprisingly, he abandons traditional plot lines and story formats for heavily psychological, ritual stories of transformation, illusion, and interchangeable identities. His plays are filled with prostitutes, homosexuals, thieves, and outcasts who, haunted by their own distorted reflections at every turn, "are trapped in self-destructive circles." Deathwatch is the story of three inmates who compete for power in the cell while a fourth watches from the side. In The Maids, Genet depicts two female maids in a role play, taking turns being the "Madame" and the maid. In examining the power structure at play, he illustrates the contempt the maids hold for the authority that oppresses them as well as their own complicity in the system. Set in a luxurious brothel, The Balcony juxtaposes the illicit fantasies of men and a revolution rocking the country outside of the brothel walls. In The Blacks, a group of colored actors perform a re-enactment of the murder of a white of which they have been accused in front of a jury of black men with white masks. The Screens, the last of Genet's plays to be produced while he was still living, is his statement on the Algerian Revolution. "These plays are grotesque--they exude a strange ritualistic, incantatory quality that successfully transforms life into a series of ceremonies and rituals that bring stability to an otherwise unbearable existence."

	Genet was also sympathetic with other marginalized groups around the world. He supported the Black Panthers in the USA and the Palestinians in Jordan and Lebanon, even publishing his final book about the time spent with these two group. Now buried in Morocco, he died on April 15, 1986 in a hotel room in the same area where he had been first abandoned by his parents as an infant. Genet also wrote film scripts and produced a silent film.		Genet was also sympathetic with other marginalized groups around the world. He supported the Black Panthers in the USA and the Palestinians in Jordan and Lebanon, even publishing his final book about the time spent with these two group. Now buried in Morocco, he died on April 15, 1986 in a hotel room in the same area where he had been first abandoned by his parents as an infant. Genet also wrote film scripts and produced a silent film.

-	Hebdige ultimately embraces Genet as the author closest to his own object of study: subculture. He draws out three major themes in Genetâ€™s work that compliment his work: â€œthe status and meaning of revolt,â€ â€œthe idea of style as a form of Refusal,â€ and â€œthe elevation of crime into art.â€ Given the ways that Genet appropriates and transforms the most mundane objects, disrupting and questioning the process of meaning making, using them as â€œa form of stigmataâ€¦tokens of a self-imposed exile,â€ the emphasis is placed on the parallel focus between the deformity, transformation, and Refusal in Genetâ€™s life and work and Hebdigeâ€™s study of subcultural style.	+	Hebdige ultimately embraces Genet as the author closest to his own object of study: subculture. He draws out three major themes in Genet's work that compliment his work: "the status and meaning of revolt," "the idea of style as a form of Refusal," and "the elevation of crime into art." Given the ways that Genet appropriates and transforms the most mundane objects, disrupting and questioning the process of meaning making, using them as "a form of stigmata--tokens of a self-imposed exile," the emphasis is placed on the parallel focus between the deformity, transformation, and Refusal in Genet's life and work and Hebdige's study of subcultural style.

-	WORKS CITED: Manisha Vardhan. `Jean Genet: The Sham is the Thing.` [http://www.3to6.com/final_theatre/legend-genet.htm]	+	WORKS CITED: Manisha Vardhan. "Jean Genet: The Sham is the Thing." [http://www.3to6.com/final_theatre/legend-genet.htm]

Reading the Romance

2009-11-16T21:30:08Z

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-	[[Janice Radway]]'s Reading the Romance explores the particular significance of the practice of `reading` popular cultural texts, in this case women's literal act of reading romance novels. While she does analyze the content of the texts, she emphasizes the importance of the readers' interpretations and the signficance of those texts to the [[The Practice of Everyday Life \| practices of their everyday lives]]. This is a major contribution to [[cultural studies]]. By considering both the act of reading the texts and an analysis of the texts themselves, Radway leaves room for resistance within the [[dominant ideology]]. For example, the [[romance novel]] is often blatantly and aggressively unsubversive yet the way it is consumed may be subversive.	+	[[Janice Radway]]'s Reading the Romance explores the particular significance of the practice of `reading` popular cultural texts, in this case women's literal act of reading romance novels. While she does analyze the content of the texts, she emphasizes the importance of the readers' interpretations and the significance of those texts to the [[The Practice of Everyday Life \| practices of their everyday lives]]. This is a major contribution to [[cultural studies]]. By considering both the act of reading the texts and an analysis of the texts themselves, Radway leaves room for resistance within the [[dominant ideology]]. For example, the [[romance novel]] is often blatantly and aggressively unsubversive yet the way it is consumed may be subversive.

-	Radway grounds her study of romance reading in its means of production. The first chapter, â€œThe Institutional Matrix,â€ is a survey of the history of the production of popular fiction in America. We donâ€™t really think about it, since weâ€™re used to buying books online, in supermarkets, in airports, and sometimes even bookstores. (Or maybe notâ€”we do watch a lot of TV.) But way back in the day, it was hard for people to have access to contemporary fiction. Due to a series of technological innovations, it became easier (and cheaper!) for book publishers to both manufacture and distribute books to a mass market. Then came the next problem for publishers: what were they going to publish and who were they going to sell it to? Publishing is an expensive business; they needed to know that their product was going to sell, and they needed to ensure repeat buyers. Thus comes the birth of â€œcategory or formulaic fiction,â€ which were books that followed a certain scripted plot, and had â€œconsistent appeal to a regular audience.â€	+	Radway grounds her study of romance reading in its means of production. The first chapter, "The Institutional Matrix," is a survey of the history of the production of popular fiction in America. We don't really think about it, since we're used to buying books online, in supermarkets, in airports, and sometimes even bookstores. (Or maybe not--we do watch a lot of TV.) But way back in the day, it was hard for people to have access to contemporary fiction. Due to a series of technological innovations, it became easier (and cheaper!) for book publishers to both manufacture and distribute books to a mass market. Then came the next problem for publishers: what were they going to publish and who were they going to sell it to? Publishing is an expensive business; they needed to know that their product was going to sell, and they needed to ensure repeat buyers. Thus comes the birth of category or formulaic fiction, which were books that followed a certain scripted plot, and had "consistent appeal to a regular audience."
-	Therefore, â€œcontemporary romance publishing is guided by this entrepreneurial vision of the book as an endlessly replicable commodity.â€	+	Therefore, "contemporary romance publishing is guided by this entrepreneurial vision of the book as an endlessly replicable commodity."

-	Janice Radway, in her infinite wisdom, decided to study womenâ€™s reading of romance novels after she became interested by the mass consumption of texts that seemed to reinforce patriarchy. She found a community of female romance readers in a Midwestern community, and interviewed them in order to study their reading. Before she started her project, she thought of reading, whether for pleasure or other ends, in terms of literary interpretation. So at first, her study was about how women interpreted their romance novels. Soon though, that all began to changeâ€¦	+	Janice Radway, in her infinite wisdom, decided to study women's reading of romance novels after she became interested by the mass consumption of texts that seemed to reinforce patriarchy. She found a community of female romance readers in a Midwestern community, and interviewed them in order to study their reading. Before she started her project, she thought of reading, whether for pleasure or other ends, in terms of literary interpretation. So at first, her study was about how women interpreted their romance novels. Soon though, that all began to change.

-	When Radway asked the Smithton women what romance novels â€œdidâ€ differently than other novels, she expected them to talk about the content of the books. However, what she got back were entirely different answers. Instead, the women talked about their reading as a form of escapism. Radway then began to see her work in terms of social activity and ethnography, and started looking at the practice of reading:	+	When Radway asked the Smithton women what romance novels did differently than other novels, she expected them to talk about the content of the books. However, what she got back were entirely different answers. Instead, the women talked about their reading as a form of escapism. Radway then began to see her work in terms of social activity and ethnography, and started looking at the practice of reading:

-	â€œRomance readingâ€¦is a strategy with a double purpose. As an activity, it so engages their attention that it enables them to deny their physical presence in an environment associated with responsibilities that are acutely felt and occasionally experienced as too onerous to bear. Reading, in this sense, connotes a free space where they feel liberated from the need to perform duties that they otherwise willingly accept as their ownâ€ (93).	+	"Romance reading is a strategy with a double purpose. As an activity, it so engages their attention that it enables them to deny their physical presence in an environment associated with responsibilities that are acutely felt and occasionally experienced as too onerous to bear. Reading, in this sense, connotes a free space where they feel liberated from the need to perform duties that they otherwise willingly accept as their own" (93).

	For the Smithton readers, romance reading is important because it is a temporary escape from the pressures of being a caretaker 24/7. But the term escape is loaded with guilt for these women (now why would that be?) Therefore, they often need to justify their reading to themselves and to their husbands.		For the Smithton readers, romance reading is important because it is a temporary escape from the pressures of being a caretaker 24/7. But the term escape is loaded with guilt for these women (now why would that be?) Therefore, they often need to justify their reading to themselves and to their husbands.
-	Radway uses the work of feminist psychologist Nancy Chodorow to explain that female readers get vicariously the romantic fulfillment they donâ€™t receive in everyday life since they are the providers of care. Oh, and happiness becomes a commodity-form (117).

		+	Radway uses the work of feminist psychologist Nancy Chodorow to explain that female readers get vicariously the romantic fulfillment they don't receive in everyday life since they are the providers of care. Oh, and happiness becomes a commodity-form (117).

	In short, reading romances is a way for these women to negotiate their own positions within a patriarchal system by identifying with a heroine as she confronts challenges and threats imposed by patriarchy throughout the course of the book.		In short, reading romances is a way for these women to negotiate their own positions within a patriarchal system by identifying with a heroine as she confronts challenges and threats imposed by patriarchy throughout the course of the book.